The Roman Army in Britain

Information on the army, its sites and the history of the province are arranged as separate sections that follow this introduction.

THE PURPOSE OF THE SITES

In the early Empire forts were bases that offered security for their garrisons and their equipment. In wartime the enemy was fought in the field, at other times the garrison would have patrolled well beyond the frontier to support allied tribes and gather intelligence. Until the end of the Flavian period the army in Britain spent the summer almost continually campaigning in enemy territory as the province was expanded into what is now the Scottish Highlands.

Units built marching camps to provide shelter at night for their tents and once an area was conquered a network of turf and timber forts roughly a days march apart. In the pre-Flavian period, before the legions had established their permanent fortresses, they built large forts of around 10 ha either to provide parts of army groups (legion and auxiliaries) with a long-term home or as a summer campaign base (aestiva) or winter quarters (hiberna). These forts, known as vexillation fortresses, are found mainly in the Midlands and southern Britain.

FIRST AND SECOND CENTURY FORTS

Newly conquered areas were controlled by timber and turf forts approximately a days march apart. In Britain this phase lasted until the mid 80s AD. Advances in the mid 2nd century and the early third century proved to be temporary or were short punitive campaigns.

Fort reconstruction

A typical 1st or 2nd century turf walled small fort capable of holding a 480 strong infantry cohort. From front to back: the barracks blocks for the six centuries; then two workshops or stores; the granaries, headquarters building and commander's house; and finally more stores or workshops at the rear of the fort. Larger image

THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURY FORTS

Once the army was no longer poised to continue the expansion of the Empire forts became permanent and in time often stone-built. To make them capable of withstanding sieges they were given towers that stood proud from the walls to provide flanking fire and platforms for artillery. Since defence was now paramount the traditional ordered playing-card shape ground plan was abandoned for irregular plans that took advantage of the topography of the site. Perhaps the best British example of this is Pevensey in East Sussex.

Changes in fort plans

Left: A first century fort, built to a regular playing card plan and often on low ground close to water

Right: Late fort often built on high ground with a ground plan that takes advantage of the site and with towers to provide flanking fire along the curtain wall

SITES AND THEIR GARRISONS

The fort's plan should provide clues to the type and size of unit providing the garrison. Counting the number and size of barrack blocks (it is assumed cavalry troopers require more accommodation for their equipment) should allow the garrison size to be measured and the type of regiment identified. Unfortunately archaeology has shown that the neat one unit one fort arrangement was not necessarily adhered to, for example Chesterholm appears to have been garrisoned at times simultaneously by parts of two different cohorts and a similar arrangement is known at Risingham in the third century. In the early first century legions or parts of legions (vexillations) were combined with auxiliary units as garrisons of forts. There is evidence that on several occasions the army would maintain sites after the bulk of the unit had moved on. This occurred at Wroxeter in the mid/late first century when Legio XX Valeria Victrix was building a fortress at Inchtuthil in Scotland, but eventually became based at Chester from the 90's AD.

However at most forts the evidence is of only one unit, but it is evident that often the whole unit was not based there. During the Antonine occupation of what is now lowland Scotland great use was made of small forts (fortlets) that lacked a headquarters building or the space to hold an entire unit. It is assumed that regiments would have had a headquarters fort whilst manning a group of surrounding fortlets.

SITE PLANS

Permanent sites had internal buildings that are relatively easily to distinguish from their ground plans. Barrack blocks, holding a century or turmae, were long and relatively thin buildings divided into accommodation blocks with a slightly larger block for the centurion (or decurion in an ala) at one end. The other rooms accommodated eight men, a contubernium, the same number as in the tents of a temporary camp.

Forts and fortresses had a centrally placed headquarters building and next to it in fortresses the house of the legate and his tribunes. The senior centurions of legions, those of the 1st cohort, also had houses. Granaries had characteristic thick and buttressed walls to hold the unit's food. Most sites had workshops and legionary fortresses hospitals.

Plans drawn to the same scale

Watch tower reconstruction

Smaller than the fortlet shown as a plan on the extreme right above. It is presumed that watch or signal towers were occupied on a shift system, with the tower teams being housed in nearby forts or fortlets. Larger image

TODAY

In Britain there is often very little visible evidence for the presence of a military site. Many Roman towns developed over earlier fort sites so that often on southern sites the evidence for a military site - early pottery, small fittings from armour, gravestones - will be on display in the local museum. If a site failed to develop into a town it is most likely to be visible only as crop marks on aerial photographs.

Never-the-less Britain still retains some outstanding and dramatic visible sites: Hadrian's Wall; parts of the Antonine Wall; the legionary fortress at Caerleon; auxiliary forts at Ardoch, Hardknot and Caernarfon; and the marching camps along Dere Street, now the A68 in Northumberland. Visit them on wet day in the winter and the full scale of the Empire's achievement in uniting Lowland Scotland with Arabia becomes apparent.


	Introduction	Information on the army, its sites and the history of the province are arranged as separate sections that follow this introduction. The army in detail Descriptions, reconstructions and plans of the different types of sites The history of the province
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	THE PURPOSE OF THE SITES In the early Empire forts were bases that offered security for their garrisons and their equipment. In wartime the enemy was fought in the field, at other times the garrison would have patrolled well beyond the frontier to support allied tribes and gather intelligence. Until the end of the Flavian period the army in Britain spent the summer almost continually campaigning in enemy territory as the province was expanded into what is now the Scottish Highlands. Units built marching camps to provide shelter at night for their tents and once an area was conquered a network of turf and timber forts roughly a days march apart. In the pre-Flavian period, before the legions had established their permanent fortresses, they built large forts of around 10 ha either to provide parts of army groups (legion and auxiliaries) with a long-term home or as a summer campaign base (aestiva) or winter quarters (hiberna). These forts, known as vexillation fortresses, are found mainly in the Midlands and southern Britain. FIRST AND SECOND CENTURY FORTS Newly conquered areas were controlled by timber and turf forts approximately a days march apart. In Britain this phase lasted until the mid 80s AD. Advances in the mid 2nd century and the early third century proved to be temporary or were short punitive campaigns. Fort reconstruction A typical 1st or 2nd century turf walled small fort capable of holding a 480 strong infantry cohort. From front to back: the barracks blocks for the six centuries; then two workshops or stores; the granaries, headquarters building and commander's house; and finally more stores or workshops at the rear of the fort. Larger image THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURY FORTS Once the army was no longer poised to continue the expansion of the Empire forts became permanent and in time often stone-built. To make them capable of withstanding sieges they were given towers that stood proud from the walls to provide flanking fire and platforms for artillery. Since defence was now paramount the traditional ordered playing-card shape ground plan was abandoned for irregular plans that took advantage of the topography of the site. Perhaps the best British example of this is Pevensey in East Sussex. Changes in fort plans Left: A first century fort, built to a regular playing card plan and often on low ground close to water Right: Late fort often built on high ground with a ground plan that takes advantage of the site and with towers to provide flanking fire along the curtain wall
	SITES AND THEIR GARRISONS The fort's plan should provide clues to the type and size of unit providing the garrison. Counting the number and size of barrack blocks (it is assumed cavalry troopers require more accommodation for their equipment) should allow the garrison size to be measured and the type of regiment identified. Unfortunately archaeology has shown that the neat one unit one fort arrangement was not necessarily adhered to, for example Chesterholm appears to have been garrisoned at times simultaneously by parts of two different cohorts and a similar arrangement is known at Risingham in the third century. In the early first century legions or parts of legions (vexillations) were combined with auxiliary units as garrisons of forts. There is evidence that on several occasions the army would maintain sites after the bulk of the unit had moved on. This occurred at Wroxeter in the mid/late first century when Legio XX Valeria Victrix was building a fortress at Inchtuthil in Scotland, but eventually became based at Chester from the 90's AD. However at most forts the evidence is of only one unit, but it is evident that often the whole unit was not based there. During the Antonine occupation of what is now lowland Scotland great use was made of small forts (fortlets) that lacked a headquarters building or the space to hold an entire unit. It is assumed that regiments would have had a headquarters fort whilst manning a group of surrounding fortlets. SITE PLANS Permanent sites had internal buildings that are relatively easily to distinguish from their ground plans. Barrack blocks, holding a century or turmae, were long and relatively thin buildings divided into accommodation blocks with a slightly larger block for the centurion (or decurion in an ala) at one end. The other rooms accommodated eight men, a contubernium, the same number as in the tents of a temporary camp. Forts and fortresses had a centrally placed headquarters building and next to it in fortresses the house of the legate and his tribunes. The senior centurions of legions, those of the 1st cohort, also had houses. Granaries had characteristic thick and buttressed walls to hold the unit's food. Most sites had workshops and legionary fortresses hospitals. Plans drawn to the same scale

	Watch tower reconstruction Smaller than the fortlet shown as a plan on the extreme right above. It is presumed that watch or signal towers were occupied on a shift system, with the tower teams being housed in nearby forts or fortlets. Larger image

	Temporary camp plan 1 Entrances 2 Ditch and bank Marching, and other temporary camps (construction and practice for example) had a ditch and low turf rampart topped with a palisade made up of stakes carried by each man. These camps provided a simple measure of protection for troops. Sites that were perhaps occupied longer than a single night have been found to have rubbish pits aligned with the lines of tents. TODAY In Britain there is often very little visible evidence for the presence of a military site. Many Roman towns developed over earlier fort sites so that often on southern sites the evidence for a military site - early pottery, small fittings from armour, gravestones - will be on display in the local museum. If a site failed to develop into a town it is most likely to be visible only as crop marks on aerial photographs. Never-the-less Britain still retains some outstanding and dramatic visible sites: Hadrian's Wall; parts of the Antonine Wall; the legionary fortress at Caerleon; auxiliary forts at Ardoch, Hardknot and Caernarfon; and the marching camps along Dere Street, now the A68 in Northumberland. Visit them on wet day in the winter and the full scale of the Empire's achievement in uniting Lowland Scotland with Arabia becomes apparent.